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Continental European Railway Operations

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Posted by Murphy Siding on Thursday, August 3, 2006 8:47 PM
     What would the *typical*(?) trip be like for a car of freight moving from the Netherlands to Italy be like?  It would seem like borders,interchanges,differing signals, engine changes, etc...would make it very challenging?

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Posted by beaulieu on Thursday, August 3, 2006 1:02 AM
 Murphy Siding wrote:
     Does this involve a fair amount of mountain rairoading, like in the western US and Canada?


Yes, both the Gotthard Pass, and the Lotschberg Route have grades over 2.2 percent. A big difference is that their freight trains are smaller. But they must make speed up the mountains to stay ahead of the passenger trains. Speed limit for both freight and passenger over the current Gotthard Pass line is 80 kph.
(about 52 mph). So a freight train weighing 1400 metric tonnes (1540 US tons) is the limit without a helper. Power is normally one Re 6/6 ( Re 620) and one Re 4/4 II or III (Re 420 or Re 430) called an Re 10/10 (10 axles all powered), this gives a total of 16,750 hp. on the front. Train power to weight
of a bit better than 10hp.  per US ton. The North Ramp of the Gotthard has one Spiral tunnel and a double horseshoe. The South Ramp has 4 Spiral Tunnels . The ruling grade going southbound is 2.8 percent for a distance of about 18 miles from Erstfeld to Goschenen. The ruling grade going northbound is also 2.8 percent for 28.5 miles from Biasca to Airolo. The line is double track through out. The Summit Tunnel is from Goschenen to Airolo and is 15 km long (about 9.3 miles) and is also double track.
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Posted by Hugh Jampton on Wednesday, August 2, 2006 9:54 PM
see..

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Posted by Hugh Jampton on Wednesday, August 2, 2006 9:43 PM
Semi-sort of. In Switzerland it's all electric trains the freights are a lot shorter and less numerous than the passenger and the Swiss are big on their tunnels, they're building 2 new ones to go under the Alps at teh moment, the Lötschberg Base Tunnel is a 21 mile tunnel while the Gotthard Base Tunnel will be 35 miles long (and the longest railway tunnel in the world) when it's finished.
But the scenery is the same,, nice and pretty like.
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Posted by Murphy Siding on Wednesday, August 2, 2006 9:26 PM
     Does this involve a fair amount of mountain rairoading, like in the western US and Canada?

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Posted by Hugh Jampton on Wednesday, August 2, 2006 9:01 PM
 Murphy Siding wrote:
     I'm trying to picture the topography of continental Europe in my head.....Doesn't a train that goes from The Netherlands, to Italy go through some majot mountains in Switzerland or France?


That would be the Alps. From the Netherlands it's best to fgo South East into Gernmany, through Cologne snd down through Karlsruhe or Stuttgart and down through Zurich or Innsbruk which brings you to the top of Italy.
http://www.mytravelguide.com/rail/european-rail-map.php is some kind of pdf map.
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Posted by Murphy Siding on Wednesday, August 2, 2006 8:44 PM
     I'm trying to picture the topography of continental Europe in my head.....Doesn't a train that goes from The Netherlands, to Italy go through some majot mountains in Switzerland or France?

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Posted by beaulieu on Wednesday, August 2, 2006 7:17 PM
Supplemental to my previous posting about Hupac. Today they released traffic figures for the first half of 2006. Overall traffic is up by 17.5 percent over the first six months of last year. Regular Intermodal is up by 19.4 percent, while Rolling Highway is down by 17.8 percent. Based on this I could see Hupac dropping the Rolling Highway service at the end of this year. The RailAlpin Rolling Highway service over the Lotschberg is doing well. The difference is the ability to carry larger trailers over the Lotschberg/Simplon route versus the Gotthard. If they keep this momentum for the whole year they should overtake Kombiverkehr as the largest Intermodal Operator in Europe.
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Posted by MStLfan on Wednesday, August 2, 2006 8:41 AM

I am going to change the name of the thread to Continental European railway operations. It is shorter and more clear. Anybody with improvements on the name?

greetings,

Marc Immeker

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Posted by TH&B on Wednesday, August 2, 2006 4:34 AM
But these semi automatic couplers you are talking about on the German and Swedish ore trains are not American style knuckle couplers, but of a Russian type of coupler that is different. Sweden is testing the US styler coupler and may convert if trains need to be even heavier.
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Posted by beaulieu on Tuesday, August 1, 2006 11:41 PM
 marcimmeker wrote:

The ore trains running from the port of Rotterdam to the steel mill at Dillingen (Saarland) Germany can weigh up to 5400 tons. They use 6 axle cars with automatic couplers (not air, that is still hand coupled). At each end there is a special car since the locomotives used (3 1600 hp class 6400 diesels or a 1600 class electric with help from 6400 class diesels) don't have these couplers. These cars come of at Venlo or Emmerich (border stations and change of overhead voltages. The German locomotives had the automatic couplers. At least the older class used, don't know about the newer ones.

greetings,

Marc Immeker



German Class 151 electrics still have Auto-couplers for the Ore trains.
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Posted by MStLfan on Tuesday, August 1, 2006 6:01 PM

The ore trains running from the port of Rotterdam to the steel mill at Dillingen (Saarland) Germany can weigh up to 5400 tons. They use 6 axle cars with automatic couplers (not air, that is still hand coupled). At each end there is a special car since the locomotives used (3 1600 hp class 6400 diesels or a 1600 class electric with help from 6400 class diesels) don't have these couplers. These cars come of at Venlo or Emmerich (border stations and change of overhead voltages. The German locomotives had the automatic couplers. At least the older class used, don't know about the newer ones.

greetings,

Marc Immeker

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Posted by martin.knoepfel on Tuesday, August 1, 2006 5:48 PM
owlsroost is right.

The so called Eurocoupler would have been fully automatic, i.e. when you couple a car, the air-lines will couple too. The French State Railway bowed out of the projects. Rumors said, because to little French technology was used.

The Swiss Federal Railways ordered a couple of intercity-cars with Eurocouplers. They still run, but only in fixed consists. The rain with for-axle clarss-421 electric engines. Now, the end-cars of each consist have conventional hook-and-chain-couplers an can be coupled to different engines. Model railroaders should try Liliput.

The German Federal Railways ordered some six-axle ore  or coal (IIRC: ore) cars. They ran to the steel-mill at Salzgitter with trains of more than 4000 metric tons. This was much too heavy for the conventional couplers. These cars are still in service: for model railroaders, at least in HO there is a model by Roc.

The Swedish-Norwegian ore-railroad from the mining-town of Kiruna to Narvik (Norway) or Lulea (Sweden) runs with US-stile couplers. I don't know the maximum weight of the trains, but it might exceed 4000 tons. They used electric engines with rods an an 1D + D + D1, i.e. 12 driving axles in which was practically three engines coupled permanently.

The former Soviet union has US-stile couplers to. They converted in the 20s or 30s of the last century.
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Posted by MStLfan on Tuesday, August 1, 2006 2:43 PM

Well, I'm back from my holiday to Helgoland.

After acquiring a lot of books and photographs and then a cd with 2200 old photographs some questions are answered and there is a new one.

There was indeed a large network of narrow gauge lines, probably 2 gauges and on both Helgoland itself and later on its companion, Dune, when it was enlarged to house an airfield.

At least one steam engine was used. As were diesels on construction work around the islands.

The new mystery is a photograph of an electric locomotive with a short train next to the lower powerhouse taken in 1921 (it says so in a book). It looks like a 2 axle AEG (sloping hoods and what looks to be a high cab, no doubt due to the shortness of the hoods). Anyone with an AEG workslist?

There was a tunnel with a cable car to haul supplies. It was used again in Hitlers time but got blown up like the rest of the southern tip of the island (and that explosion left a mighty big hole...).

Interestingly, when the Germans rebuild the island after they got it back in 1952 they build a new, short tunnel at the upper end of the location of the original. {edit: they build a new cable car which used the tunnel at hte upper end. Halfway and out in the open was a passing place. It is very visible in some old photographs. The lower end isn't.} On the upland side there are some remains of tracks in the concrete. This tunnel is now used by the electric cars used to supply the businesses and hotels on the upland.

Other remains of tracks can be found at the end of the moles of the southern harbour.

The track on the ostmole (eastern breakwater) is accesible. I played archeologist and took a few pieces of the track. Under the influence of salt water it is falling into pieces that split lengthwise from the track.

The westmole is new after a storm broke it and from the air a few pieces of narrow gauge and crane track could be seen on what remains of the original westmole.

greetings,

Marc Immeker

 

 

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Posted by Murphy Siding on Sunday, July 30, 2006 6:00 PM
 cogload wrote:

Beaulieu - are you a Brit? Question [?]

It seems that you are very clued up on chuffer ops over here (en europe as well); thats all.

 

     I'd call him an honorary Brit.Big Smile [:D]

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Posted by owlsroost on Sunday, July 30, 2006 5:29 PM

I think you will see things change in the next few years as companies in Europe no longer need to be able to interchange cars. Each will then be able to go their own way, and the use of buffers will end. Already the heavy Iron Ore trains from Rotterdam to the Saar are equipped with autocouplers. Other trains like container trains will follow. Cars used in carload service will be last.

Some (maybe all) of  new freight cars EWS has acquired in UK are fitted with US-style couplers (known as 'Buckeye' here), and the majority of the EWS loco fleet is equiped with both types of coupling gear. Iron ore trains in the UK have been fitted with AAR-type rotating couplers (to allow rotary dumping without uncoupling cars) since the late 1970's. Also, most express passenger rolling stock built in the UK since the mid-1950's has been fitted with Buckeye or other types of automatic centre couplers.

If I remember correctly, there were moves in the 1970's to establish a standard European (UIC) automatic coupler, but it never really got anywhere as far as I know.

Tony

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Posted by beaulieu on Sunday, July 30, 2006 2:55 PM
 cogload wrote:

Beaulieu - are you a Brit? Question [?]

It seems that you are very clued up on chuffer ops over here (en europe as well); thats all.


No, born and live in the North Central part of the US. I am a voracious reader. I have looked at everything on the EU, UIC, CER, UIRR, ERFA, ERCIP, RFG, FTA, BAV, FOT, UVEK, ARE, and CEMT, along with the various company websites. I have read through various studies at Leeds University, St. Gallens University, and the Universities at Brugge and Louvain in Belgium, that I discovered though the bibliographies on the earlier websites. I have translation software for French, Italian and Dutch, I can speak or at least read German. I subscribe to several magazines, both fan and professional, and am expanding my library. And I read the online versions of several European Transportation Daily newspapers.
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Posted by Anonymous on Sunday, July 30, 2006 2:15 PM

Beaulieu - are you a Brit? Question [?]

It seems that you are very clued up on chuffer ops over here (en europe as well); thats all.

 

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Profile of Hupac Ltd.
Posted by beaulieu on Sunday, July 30, 2006 2:10 PM
I thought I would profile one of the largest Intermodal Operators (IM) in Europe. Hupac Ltd. is a Swiss Company based in Chiasso specializing in transalpine intermodal service. The closest US equivilent would be Pacer Stacktrain. Hupac, a contraction of Huckepack (German for Piggyback) operates Intermodal terminals in Switzerland, Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, and it contracts for capacity at other terminals, in Germany, Italy, Belgium, Denmark, and Poland. It is owned by Logistics Companies (72%) and National Railways (28%), it is the only IM operator not strongly tied to one shipper or a railway company. In Europe Hupac contracts with the railways to move its trains, and provide the locomotive and driver (one man operation except in Italy). It has its own railcars which are leased from companies like VTG, AAE, and GE Railcar Leasing. Hupac is solely responsible for sales of space. It pays a fixed amount to the railway operators whether the train is full or empty. To help with doing this, its sells some of this space to other IMs like Kombiverkehr, and Cemat. In addition to inland transportation it also moves Maritime containers from the various terminals at Rotterdam, Antwerp, Zeebrugge, and to a lesser extent in Hamburg. All of their contracts now have some degree of performance specified, and since the summer of 2005, one railway operator is responsible for operation of the train from begining to end. Some train operations do require more than one operator, but one is the prime contractor and they are soley responsible for the train. Unlike in North America all terminals close down sometime Saturday afternoon and do not reopen until the early hours of Monday morning. This does not include the Port terminals. Hupac operates just under 90 trains per week. Largest traffic flows are from various points in Northern Europe, down the Rhein Corridor, entering Switzerland at Basle, thence over the Gotthard, and finally either via Luino or Chiasso to terminals in Northern Italy. Hupac's largest terminal is located at Busto Arzizio just 40 or kilometers WNW of Milan. It has 11 gantry cranes and has a capacity of over 240,000 lifts per year.
The largest terminal on the North End is the Eifeltor terminal SW of Cologne, which is owned by Kombiverkehr. Inspite of Hupac being the tenent rather than the landlord they are the largest user of the facility. Hupac also operates 6 Rolling Highway trains per day over the Gotthard route from Basle and Schaffhausen on the north to Lugano on the south, these trains offer drive on and drive off ability for semi-trucks allowing truck drivers to rest while the train is moving and complying with hours of driving regulations. Hupac is also the major shareholder in RailAlpin AG which provides a similar RoLa service over the Lotschberg/Simplon route between Freiburg, Germany and Domodossola, Italy.
Comparing 2005 versus 2004 traffic in regular intermodal (called Unaccompanied Combinied Transport or UCT) increased by 17.2 % while the Rolling Highway service decreased by 6.6 %, note the Rolling Highway figures do not include those of RailAlpin AG which showed an increase. Financial results were not so good although Hupac did manage to show a small profit of 6.5 million Swiss Francs on Revenues of 406 million Swiss Francs.
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Posted by beaulieu on Sunday, July 30, 2006 11:06 AM
The answer as to why freight ton miles per gallon of fuel used started dropping in 1998 is of course due to congestion caused by the railroad being full, we are so close to being at absolute capacity that we are operating at above the most efficient capacity. Sure the SP meltdown and the first UP meltdown happened before 1998, but it is only beginning in 1998 that the whole industry began experiencing problems.
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Posted by beaulieu on Sunday, July 30, 2006 10:56 AM
 440cuin wrote:

You can't just measure efficiency of a railroad just by crew sizes and traffic density. European freights often have only one crew member but cannot do any work on route exerpt at manned stations. European stations have more personel compared to the USA. Station personel are used for set offs and swicthing. A line with only one large train a day is better off with a full crew of say 3 men then keeping station staff around to help several small freights, it can easily end up using more labour to handle the same tonnage. I've seen Euro stations where a crew of 3 don't have much to do because only one freight sets off and lifts in each direction often only 3 or 4 two axle cars with 30 ton grain loads. More recently another freight comes by 3 times a week just to run around it's train with the engine and go the other way because there is no more train personel at a junction down the line where it sould realy be turning.

Very true but those days are gradually coming to an end. Particularly in those countries with Open Access. You may be familiar with the German program called MORA-C which was a program by DB Cargo to reduce losses on single carload railfreight in the mid -nineties. The government decided to reduce subsidies which raised losses at DB so they had to cut off the most expensive part of single car operations . They also have invested in improving their humpyards to more make them State of the Art for 2000, they are about halfway through the program of rebuilding their yards. Recently they began a new round of carload cutbacks. Open Access and the desire, and requirement to end subsidies is doing this. The Swiss who have a Railfreight marketshare similar to the US just went though a similar carload service cut back which they finished in April, 2006. Due to social concerns they don't tend to layoff employees like in the US. In the Swiss case there will be enough retirements to take care of the extra Employees, although there will need to be some shifting of where people work.


US railroads adjust their freight trains more to customer demand compared to many Euro freight trains wich often are very compromised to fit between passenger scheduals. US trains only handle freight that is profitable to handle and just turns down other traffic that is less profitable or non profitable.

Of course in Europe, the solution because the trains are smaller is to cutoff trains. Remember what you saw in the Eighties and early-Nineties in Europe no longer applies. Open Access in the central core of Europe has changed everything. The changes in France will be delayed, but should happen also.


Also if you think about ot why should there be two buffers at the end of each car? one buffer to the right on all equipement would accomplish the same for half the amount of buffers. Some permanemtly coupled cars are like this. Buffers are used in Europe but not in Russia (a huge rail network) and not in Japan or large parts of Austaria and Africa.I'd say most trains in the world do not use buffers .



I think you will see things change in the next few years as companies in Europe no longer need to be able to interchange cars. Each will then be able to go their own way, and the use of buffers will end. Already the heavy Iron Ore trains from Rotterdam to the Saar are equipped with autocouplers. Other trains like container trains will follow. Cars used in carload service will be last.
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Posted by beaulieu on Saturday, July 29, 2006 12:39 PM
 Hugh Jampton wrote:

and I,, oh forget it...

It's easier to work out the various efficiencies (I'm but a simple engineer, % efficiency is work out / work in * 100, but my economist friends can work out efficiency a hundred different ways) for the American railroads as they're mostly freight. This report from the University of Minnisota is quite comprehensive on the American side. http://www.trb.org/conferences/railworkshop/background-McCullough.pdf
The difficulty is that Europe is a much more mixed traffic affair, and I'm sure to try and work out tonne km / employee would probably never give an accurate answer (e.g. signallers and track maintenance people who don't work directly for the freight operator). RRUK have looked at efficieny of route usage and show that the US is 3.4 times more efficient than the UK. http://portal.railresearch.org.uk/RRUK/Shared%20Documents/BENCHMARKING2.pdf
The comparison table is at the bottom of page 2 and compares a number of countries.


Interesting couple of reports that I hadn't read yet, thanks Hugh. One question I have about the first report, near the end the table on fuel consumption per T/mi drops and he ponders that without dicussing why it happened, I am pretty sure I know why it happened and I am dissapointed that he doesn't seem to know what happened. Anybody else care to guess? The answer later today.
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Posted by beaulieu on Saturday, July 29, 2006 12:29 PM
 Murphy Siding wrote:
     Is all European rail traffic predominately centered on passenger traffic?


The UIC (The International Union of Railways), the global organization representing railways (The AAR represents US railways in this organization), considers the Ukraine in Europe but not Russia. Latvia, Estonia, and the Ukraine among European countries are more dominated by the freight side of the business. The Scandinavian countries and Poland can be considered as balanced. I don't know enough about Lithuania to say about them. The Balkan countries, Romania, and Bulgaria are problably balanced as well.
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Posted by TH&B on Saturday, July 29, 2006 12:12 PM

You can't just measure efficiency of a railroad just by crew sizes and traffic density. European freights often have only one crew member but cannot do any work on route exerpt at manned stations. European stations have more personel compared to the USA. Station personel are used for set offs and swicthing. A line with only one large train a day is better off with a full crew of say 3 men then keeping station staff around to help several small freights, it can easily end up using more labour to handle the same tonnage. I've seen Euro stations where a crew of 3 don't have much to do because only one freight sets off and lifts in each direction often only 3 or 4 two axle cars with 30 ton grain loads. More recently another freight comes by 3 times a week just to run around it's train with the engine and go the other way because there is no more train personel at a junction down the line where it sould realy be turning. 

US railroads adjust their freight trains more to customer demand compared to many Euro freight trains wich often are very compromised to fit between passenger scheduals. US trains only handle freight that is profitable to handle and just turns down other traffic that is less profitable or non profitable.

Also if you think about ot why should there be two buffers at the end of each car? one buffer to the right on all equipement would accomplish the same for half the amount of buffers. Some permanemtly coupled cars are like this. Buffers are used in Europe but not in Russia (a huge rail network) and not in Japan or large parts of Austaria and Africa.I'd say most trains in the world do not use buffers .

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Posted by Murphy Siding on Saturday, July 29, 2006 11:01 AM
     Is all European rail traffic predominately centered on passenger traffic?

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Posted by Hugh Jampton on Saturday, July 29, 2006 10:37 AM
 Simon Reed wrote:

And I disagree with...etc..

The Phillips article is a generalisation so I have also generalised.

I think we're all familiar with the concept of UP's triple track raceway across Nebraska and I'd completely agree that this diesel freight railroading at it's optimum, with uninterrupted high speed running over a well engineered level-ish route.

That, however, is very much an exception. 

Let's think about a unit coal train heading East from Powder River. UP and BNSF have the whole Powder River operation running quite nicely - see this months Railfan and Railroad. Once you're across Nebraska, however, both roads suffer a huge dwell time in Kansas City.

Dwell time is pretty much an unknown concept in Europe. It does exist, but is managed.

East of KC the comparison is no longer viable, primarily because you're on single track routes. I've often wondered how much of a US crew's 12 hours is tied up waiting for meets. You're also climbing, so will maybe need 4 locos.

As I say, the Europe/US comparison is'nt valid but how cost effective is 2 men and 4 locos doing maybe 100 miles in 12 hours?         



and I,, oh forget it...

It's easier to work out the various efficiencies (I'm but a simple engineer, % efficiency is work out / work in * 100, but my economist friends can work out efficiency a hundred different ways) for the American railroads as they're mostly freight. This report from the University of Minnisota is quite comprehensive on the American side. http://www.trb.org/conferences/railworkshop/background-McCullough.pdf
The difficulty is that Europe is a much more mixed traffic affair, and I'm sure to try and work out tonne km / employee would probably never give an accurate answer (e.g. signallers and track maintenance people who don't work directly for the freight operator). RRUK have looked at efficieny of route usage and show that the US is 3.4 times more efficient than the UK. http://portal.railresearch.org.uk/RRUK/Shared%20Documents/BENCHMARKING2.pdf
The comparison table is at the bottom of page 2 and compares a number of countries.
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Posted by martin.knoepfel on Friday, July 28, 2006 4:42 PM
The different European countries have different signalling-systems, although some countries share the same system (Belgium and France, for example). Equipping a locomotive for two or three signalling-systems is far more expensive than adding a pantograph. The ETCS is not yet standard on all mainlines in the European Union.
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Posted by Simon Reed on Friday, July 28, 2006 3:13 PM

And I disagree with...etc..

The Phillips article is a generalisation so I have also generalised.

I think we're all familiar with the concept of UP's triple track raceway across Nebraska and I'd completely agree that this diesel freight railroading at it's optimum, with uninterrupted high speed running over a well engineered level-ish route.

That, however, is very much an exception. 

Let's think about a unit coal train heading East from Powder River. UP and BNSF have the whole Powder River operation running quite nicely - see this months Railfan and Railroad. Once you're across Nebraska, however, both roads suffer a huge dwell time in Kansas City.

Dwell time is pretty much an unknown concept in Europe. It does exist, but is managed.

East of KC the comparison is no longer viable, primarily because you're on single track routes. I've often wondered how much of a US crew's 12 hours is tied up waiting for meets. You're also climbing, so will maybe need 4 locos.

As I say, the Europe/US comparison is'nt valid but how cost effective is 2 men and 4 locos doing maybe 100 miles in 12 hours?         

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Posted by Hugh Jampton on Friday, July 28, 2006 10:28 AM
 Simon Reed wrote:

I've just got my July Trains magazine.

Don Phillips suggests that European freight operations are inefficient and labour intensive in comparison to the North American model.

I'd disagree. How can a freight travelling at maybe 25MPH on a secondary route with three or four crew members aboard be more efficient than a single manned 75MPH freight?

I accept that European railroads can't move 100+ unit coal or intermodal trains but in cost per mile terms which is the more efficient?

I'm asking this from a European perspective - any offers?

Possibly this is a question that cannot be answered. Later in the same magazine I read that Ohio Central crews consider themselves lucky to know their assignments a week in advance...I'd imagine most Western European passenger and freight crews will have rosters up to three months in advance, indicative of the enormous divides between US and European railroading cultures.  



I disagree with your disagreement. Although I've not read the piece yet, and probably won't until I get to Derby next.

Firstly you're trying to compare the worst of the US with the best of Europe. Try comparing apples and apples.

Economies of scale do result in greater efficiencies. Take coal for example. 1 10,000 equivalent tonne coal train in the states with 2 crew (engineer and conductor is the standard US compliment these days). Depending on the route the train may have as little as 2 or 3 4400hp engines. How many trainloads would it take to move the same tonnage over here? (I estimate 3 or 4 based on the 750m maximum allowable train length and 72tonne capacity hoppers). So that's 3 or 4 drivers, plus 3 or 4 train paths and 3 or 4 locos. Do the math, US railroading does seem more efficient than European railwaying.
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Posted by Simon Reed on Friday, July 28, 2006 9:33 AM

I've just got my July Trains magazine.

Don Phillips suggests that European freight operations are inefficient and labour intensive in comparison to the North American model.

I'd disagree. How can a freight travelling at maybe 25MPH on a secondary route with three or four crew members aboard be more efficient than a single manned 75MPH freight?

I accept that European railroads can't move 100+ unit coal or intermodal trains but in cost per mile terms which is the more efficient?

I'm asking this from a European perspective - any offers?

Possibly this is a question that cannot be answered. Later in the same magazine I read that Ohio Central crews consider themselves lucky to know their assignments a week in advance...I'd imagine most Western European passenger and freight crews will have rosters up to three months in advance, indicative of the enormous divides between US and European railroading cultures.  

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