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On the subject of grades I find a maximum of 2.5% is a workable grade for our HO trains. Double headed steam on a passenger train looks great. One thing not mentioned so far is the effect of curves on a grade. This increases the drag of the train which affects the pulling power of the locomotives. Most grades I have experienced are used to return the rite of way back over itself which meants a continous curve of 30 inches or greater for a climb of at least 4 inches. I also do not like the look of flat surface layouts. i prefer to allow sags in the road bed just as you see looking down a railroad rite of way. I span a length of road bed between two points and let the natural spring of the material decide the height of the risers between. Remembering to avoid sharp changes in grade so couplers do not come uncoupled and locomotive pilots bottom out. This adds visual interest to the layout and can challenge an engineer to maintain an even performance. But as always with fitting an unlimited railroad empire in a finite space allowances must be made for reality.[2c]
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